Acronym Definition
OBYR Online Backyard Resorts
OBYR Online Backyard Rinks
OBYR Online Bake Young Realty
OBYR Online Baytree Real Estate
OBYR Online Belarusian Rouble (ISO currency code)
OBYR Online Bendigo Youth Racing
OBYR Online Books for Young Readers
OBYR Online one billion years
Byr was formerly used in English-language geology and astronomy as a unit of one
billion years. The "B" is an abbreviation for "billion" (meaning thousand
million), with "yr" simply an abbreviation for "year". Today, the term gigaannum
(Ga) is also used, but Gy or Gyr are still sometimes used in English-language
works.
Because a billion means 1000 million in some countries but can mean a million
million in others its use is deprecated in favour of giga- which unambiguously
means 109 and annum which for precision may be qualified by (sidereal),
(Julian), etc.
OBYR Online Books for Young Readers
Young-adult fiction (often abbreviated as YA fiction, or simply YA) is fiction
written for, published for, or marketed to adolescents, roughly ages 12 to 18.
Characteristics
Young-adult fiction, whether in the form of novels or short stories, has
distinct attributes that distinguish it from the other age categories of
fiction: adult fiction, juvenile fiction, and children's fiction. The vast
majority of YA stories portray an adolescent as the protagonist, rather than an
adult or a child. The subject matter and story lines are typically consistent
with the age and experience of the main character, but beyond that YA stories
span the entire spectrum of fiction genres. The settings of YA stories are
limited only by the imagination and skill of the author. Themes in YA stories
often focus on the challenges of youth, so much so that the entire age category
is sometimes referred to as problem novels or coming of age novel . Writing
styles of YA stories range widely, from the richness of literary style to the
clarity and speed of the unobtrusive. Despite its unique characteristics, YA
shares the fundamental elements of fiction with other stories: character, plot,
setting, theme, and style.
History of YA
The first recognition of young adults as a distinct group was by Sarah Trimmer,
who in 1802 described "young adulthood" as lasting from ages 14 to 21. However,
nineteenth-century publishers didn't specifically market to young readers, and
adolescent culture didn't exist in a modern sense. Nonetheless, there were books
published in the nineteenth century that appealed to young readers (Garland
1998, p. 6):
* The Swiss Family Robinson (1812)
* Oliver Twist (1838)
* The Count of Monte Cristo (1844)
* Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857)
* Great Expectations (1860)
* Alice in Wonderland (1865)
* Little Women (1868)
* Tom Sawyer (1876)
* Heidi (1880)
* Treasure Island (1883)
* Huckleberry Finn (1884)
* Kidnapped (1886)
* The Jungle Book (1894).
Examples of other novels that predate the young-adult classification, but that
are now frequently presented alongside YA novels are (Garland 1998, p. 6):
* Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903)
* Anne of Green Gables (1908)
* The Secret Garden (1909)
* The Yearling (1938)
* My Friend Flicka (1941)
* Johnny Tremain (1943).
In the 1950s, shortly before the advent of modern publishing for the teen
market, two novels drew the attention of adolescent readers: The Catcher in the
Rye (1951), and Lord of the Flies (1954). Unlike more-recent fiction classified
as YA, these two were written with an adult audience in mind. [FitzGerald 2004,
p. 62]
The modern classification of young-adult fiction originated during the 1950s and
1960s, as publishers began to focus on the emerging adolescent market.
Booksellers and libraries, in turn, began creating YA sections distinct from
either children's literature or novels written for adults.
Edgy content
From its very beginning, young-adult fiction has portrayed teens confronting
situations and social issues that have pushed the edge of then-acceptable
content. Such novels and their content are sometimes referred to as "edgy."
In particular, authors and publishers have repeatedly pushed the boundaries of
what was previously considered acceptable regarding human sexuality. Examples
include:
* Beverly Cleary's Fifteen (1956) (romance)
* Judy Blume's Forever (1975) (a teen's first sexual encounter and teen
pregnancy)
* Nancy Garden's Annie on My Mind (1982) (two high-school girls who fall in
love)
* Shelley Stoehr's Crosses (1991) (self-mutilation)
* Cynthia Voigt's When She Hollers (1994) (rape)
* Linda Glovach's Beauty Queen (1998) (teenage exotic dancing, threesomes, and
heroin addiction)
* Laurie Halse Anderson's Speak (1999) (rape)
* Sarah Dessen's Dreamland (2000) (emotionally, mentally, and physically abusive
relationships)
* Alex Flinn's Breathing Underwater (2001) (emotionally, mentally, and
physically abusive relationships)
* Alex Sanchez's Rainbow Boys (2001) (high school boys exploring gay sex,
accepting their sexuality, and falling in love)
* Patricia McCormick's Cut (2001) (self-mutilation)
* Margaret Bechard's Hanging on to Max (2002) (teen fatherhood)
* Alice Hoffman's Green Angel (2003) (self-mutilation)
* Angela Johnson's The First Part Last (2003) (teen fatherhood)
* Julie Anne Peters' Luna (2004) (a girl whose older brother is transexual)
YA novels currently in print include content about peer pressure, illness,
divorce, drugs, gangs, crime, violence, sexuality, incest, oral sex, and male
rape. Critics of such content argue that the novels encourage destructive or
immoral behavior. Others argue that fictional portrayal of teens successfully
addressing difficult situations and confronting social issues helps readers deal
with real-life challenges.
Debate continues regarding the amount and nature of violence and profanity
appropriate in young-adult fiction.
Hyphens (young adult vs. young-adult)
Recognition of the noun young adult and its punctuation as an adjectival
modifier are inconsistent. Some dictionaries recognize young adult as a noun
(Random House, 2nd 1987), while others do not (Webster's International, 3rd
2002). When recognized (as by Random House), young adult is treated as an open
compound noun, with no hyphen.
When the noun young adult is placed before another noun (such as fiction, novel,
author), however, the use of a hyphen varies widely. For example, an internet
search (of the Web or of news articles) using the key words young adult fiction
shows widespread inconsistency in hyphenation. Although the Chicago Manual of
Style falls short of declaring the omission of the hypen as grammatically
incorrect, it clearly addresses the issue in "Compounds and Hyphenation,"
sections 7.82-7.86: "When such compounds precede a noun, hyphenation usually
makes for easier reading. With the exception of proper nouns (such as United
States) and compounds formed by an adverb ending in ly plus an adjective, it is
never incorrect to hypenate adjectival compounds before a noun."(Chicago Manual
of Style, 15th Edition 2003, p. 300) The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference
is a little more forceful on the subject: "The most complicated business
conducted by hyphens is uniting words into adjectival compounds that precede
nouns. Many writers neglect to hyphenate such compounds, and the result is
ramshackle sentences that often frustrate the reader." (Writer's Digest Grammar
Desk Reference 2005, p. 274-275) The Wikipedia Manual of Style also addresses
the issue of hyphens for compound adjectives. ]
Although none of the sources cited above list young adult as an example, each
clearly expresses a preference for hypenating compound modifiers. With that in
mind, young adult is a noun (without a hyphen) as defined by Random House. But
when the noun young adult precedes another noun, it becomes a compound modifier
and warrants a hyphen, as in young-adult fiction, young-adult novel, young-adult
novel, and so on. Especially since the sources do not declare the absence of a
hyphen as grammatically incorrect, widespread inconsistencies in the puntuation
of young adult are likely to continue, either out of ignorance or as conscious
choice of style.
Literature
The decision as to whether or not any particular work of fiction qualifies as
literature is, of course, subjective and subject to the test of time. In recent
years, YA fiction has been increasingly treated as an object of serious study by
children's literature critics. A growing number of young-adult-fiction awards
recognize outstanding works of fiction for adolescents.
Trends
The category of YA fiction continues to expand into new forms and genres:
e-books, graphic novels, manga, fantasy, mystery fiction, romance novels, even
subcategories such as cyberpunk, splatterpunk, techno-thrillers, contemporary
Christian fiction.
Boundaries between children's, YA, and adult fiction
The distinctions between children's literature, YA literature, and adult
literature are often flexible and loosely defined. At the lower end of the YA
age spectrum, fiction targeted to readers age 10 to 12 is referred to as
juvenile fiction. Some novels originally marketed to adults have been identified
as being of interest and value to adolescents.
References
* Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN
0-226-10403-6.
* Eccleshare, Julia [1996]. "Teenage Fiction: Realism, romances, contemporary
problem novels", in Peter Hunt, ed.: International Companion Encyclopedia of
Children's Literature. London: Routledge, 387-396.
* Egoff, Sheila [1980]. "The Problem Novel", in Shiela Egoff, ed.: Only Connect:
readings on children's literature, 2nd, Ontario: Oxford University Press,
356-369.
* Garland, Sherry (1998). Writing for Young Adults. Cincinnati, OH: Writer's
Digest Books, 5-11. ISBN 0-89879-857-4.
* Lutz and Stevenson (2005). "The Hyphen", The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk
Reference. Cincinnati, Ohio: Writer's Digest Books, 274-275. ISBN 1-58297-335-0.
* Nilsen, Alleen Pace (April 1994). "That Was Then ... This Is Now". School
Library Journal 40 (4): 62-70.
* (1987) Random House Dictionary, 2nd edition. Random House. ISBN 0-394-50050-4.
* (2002) Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. ISBN
0-87779-206-2.
Other publications
* Authors and Artists for Young Adults, serial publication (Gale, 1989+) with
bio-bibliographies of novelists, poets, dramatists, filmmakers, cartoonists,
painters, architects, and photographers which appeal to teenagers. Entries
typically are six to twelve pages in length, have a black & white photo of the
author/artist and other illustrations. Recent volumes include a sidebar
recommending similar books/works the reader might like also.
* Best Books for Young Adults, 3rd ed. by YALSA, edited by Holly Koelling.
* Books for the Teen Age, annual book list selected by teens for teens,
sponsored by the New York Public Library
* More Outstanding Books for the College Bound, by YALSA (Young Adult Library
Services Association), professional organization for librarians serving teens in
either public libraries or school library/media centers; a division of ALA.
* Diana Tixier Herald. (2003) Teen Genreflecting. 2nd ed. Wesport, Conn.:
Libraries Unlimited.
* Judging a Book by Its Cover: Publishing Trends in Young Adult Literature, by
Cat Yampbell, The Lion and the Unicorn; Sep 2005; 29:3; Children's Module, The
Johns Hopkins University Press, pp348-372, at p350-351.
* Frances FitzGerald, "The Influence of Anxiety" in Harper's, September 2004, p.
62-70
Reading readiness has been defined as the point at which a person is ready to
learn to read and the time during which a person transitions from being a
non-reader into a reader. Other terms for reading readiness include early
literacy and emergent reading.
Children begin to learn pre-reading skills at birth as they listen to the speech
around them. In order to learn to read a child must have knowledge of the oral
language. According to the Ontario Government (2003), the acquisition of
language is natural while the process of learning to read is not. Reading must
be taught to children. This belief contradicts the whole language philosophy
which states that children learn to read while they learn to speak. The Ontario
Government (2003) also believes that reading is the foundation for success and
that those children who struggle with reading in grades 1-3 are at a
disadvantage in terms of academic success, compared to those children who are
not struggling.
Part of a series on
Reading
GENERAL INFORMATION
Literacy ? Illiteracy
Family literacy ? Functional illiteracy
Braille
TYPES
Close reading ? Proofreading
Skimming ? Slow reading
Speed reading ? Subvocalized
LEARNING TO READ
Reading readiness
Reading acquisition ? Comprehension
Dyslexia ? Reading disability
National Reading Panel ? Spelling
READING INSTRUCTION
Reading education ? Phonics
Alphabetic principle
Basal reader ? Decodable text
Research-based reading instruction
Whole language ? Methodology debate
LISTS
Assessments ? Publications
Topics ? Treatments
view ? talk ? edit
As a child's early experience with literacy-related activities is highly
correlated to the child's success with reading, it is important to consider a
child's developmental level when choosing appropriate activities and goals.
Early enjoyable pre-reading experiences set the stage for a child's desire to
learn. By creating developmentally appropriate activities (activities that are
fun and challenging but not frustrating), the child gains knowledge that will
serve as the foundation for further learning as he or she enters the school
system.
Reading readiness is highly individualistic. There is no "one size fits all"
solution to teaching a child to read. A parent or educator may need to employ
several techniques before finding the most appropriate method for an individual
child. According to Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development a child can, through
the help of an adult or more capable child, perform at a higher level than he or
she can independently. The process of learning to read should thus be supported
by a caring and supportive individual.
Reading readiness skills
Skills that indicate whether a child is ready to learn to read include:
* Age-appropriate oral language development and vocabulary
* Appreciation of stories and books
* Phonemic awareness (ability to distinguish and manipulate individual sounds of
language)
* Understanding of basic print concepts (for example, printed text represents
spoken words; spaces between words are meaningful; pages written in English are
read left to right starting at the top of the page; books have a title and an
author, and so on).
* Understanding of the alphabetic principle (letters represent the sounds of
language)
* Ability to distinguish shapes (visual discrimination)
* Ability to identify at least some letters of the alphabet.
Instructional programs for reading
Whole Language: With this model, reading is taught by keeping language whole and
not segmented into fragments or skills. Within this philosophy, children are
expected to learn to read and write in the same manner that they learn to talk.
Reading, writing and oral language are considered to be intertwined. Some
strategies according to the whole language model include encouraging the child
to learn to read by "reading." This model also believes that adults should allow
the child to witness reading behaviours (i.e. holding a book properly). It is
also important for adults to model these behaviours in an environment that is
free from criticism (Matthews, Klassen and Walter, 1999). Children are taught to
guess words that they don't know by using context clues; indeed, an early
proponent of whole language reading instruction called reading a
"psycholinguistic guessing game." Skipping unknown words is also encouraged.
"Inventive" spelling is also acceptable.
Phonics: This popular method focuses on the relationship between what is SEEN
and HEARD. Students learn rules for using alphabet letters (graphemes).
"Sounding-out letters" can often be confusing because many words "don't play
fair" -- the rules are inconsistent and unreliable. However, the phonics
approach is measurably MORE effective than having made NO attempt to teach
language structure.
Other reading tips
It is suggested that by providing the children with the knowledge of spelling
patterns (that is, the combination of letters that are likely to occur within
the English language) that spelling and reading will become much easier for the
child. It is thought that once we (as adults) really look at the rules to the
English language we use everyday and have internalized within ourselves, that it
will become clear that there is some order and regular patterns that we follow.
Once we are aware of these patterns, we can help children begin to understand
these rules that we follow on a daily basis.
Some suggestions for reading skills
* Read to the child.
* Have the child "read" to you. Allow the child to create their own story based
on the pictures they see within the book.
* Reread stories multiple times.
* Omit words of a familiar story and allow the child to fill in the blank.
* Allow the child to experiment with words.
* Point to the words on the page as you read out loud to the child. This enables
the child to gain an understanding that sentences consist of separate words.
Influential perspectives
The two most influential perspectives are the ‘growth-readiness’ view and the
‘environmentalist’ view. These two perspectives differ as the growth-readiness
view focuses on the internal workings of the child in order to determine
readiness while environmentalists focus on the external environment. Internal
factors (such as genetics) and environmental aspects (such as school atmosphere)
can influence a child’s readiness for reading.
Book List
The following is a list of books that are great for young readers as they have
some vital elements such as repetition and bright colours. Many of these books
encourage the child to use their imagination, to fill in the blank and to take
an active role in the story.
* Allan, Nicholas. (2000). You’re All Animals. London: Random House Children’s
Books
* Benchley, Nathaniel. Ill. By Arnold Lobel. (1964). Red Fox and His Canoe. New
York, NY: Scholastic Books Services
* Berry, Joy. Ill. By John Costanza. (1982). Let’s Talk About Being Selfish.
Danbury, CT: Grolier Enterprises Inc.
* Berry, Joy. Ill. By John Costanza. (1982). Let’s Talk About Disobeying.
Danbury, CT:Grolier Enterprises Inc.
* Berry, Joy. Ill. By John Costanza. (1982). Let’s Talk About Teasing. Danbury,
CT: Grolier Enterprises Inc.
* Bertrand, Cecile. (1993). NONI Sees. New York, NY: Western Publishing Inc.
* Boynton, Sandra. (1982). But Not the Hippopotamus. NY: Little Simon Books
* Bridwell, Norman. (1984). Clifford’s Kitten. New York: Scholastic Inc.
* Bruna, Dick. (1986). I Am a Clown. NY: Methuen Children’s Books
* Bruna, Dick, (1986). When I’m Big. NY: Methuen Children’s Books
* Caple, Kathy. (2000). Well Done, Worm! Cambridge, Massachusetts: Candlewick
Press
* Carle, Eric. (1994). The Very Hungry Caterpillar. NY: Philomel Books
* Coats, Laura Jane. (1993). Alphabet Garden. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing
Company
* Coats, Lucy. (1992). One Hungry Baby. New York, NY: Crown Publishers Inc.
* Cole, Joanna & Calmenson, Stephanie. Ill. By Alan Tiegreen. (1996). Bug in a
Rug. New York, NY: William Morrow & Company Inc.
* Crews, Donald. (1999). Cloudy Day, Sunny Day. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt, Inc.
* Crump, Fred. (1970). Ringo the Raccoon. US: Ideals Publishing Corporation
* Cushman, Jean. (1980). We Help Mommy. Wisconsin: Western Publishing Company,
Inc.
* Emberely, Ed. (1993). Go Away Big Green Monster. Toronto: Little Brown and
Company
* Fox, Christyan and Diane. (2002). What Shape Is That Piggy Wiggy? NY:
Handprint
* Galdone, Paul. (1968). Henny Penny. NY: Clarion Books
* Horban, Tana. (1983). I Read Signs. NY: Greenwillow
* Horban, Tana. (1974). Where Is It? NY: MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc.
* Isadora, Rachel. (1985). I See. NY: Greenwillow Books
* Jonas, A. (1986). Now We Can Go. NY: Greenwillow Books
* Karlin, Nurit. (1997). I See, You Saw. USA: Harper Trophy
* Katz, Bobbi. (1985). The Runaway Ball. Mexico: Intervisual Communications,
Inc.
* Lee, Dennis. Ill by Marie-Louise Gay. (1985). Lizzy’s Lion. NY: Stoddart Kids
* Martin, Bill. (1967). Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? NY: Henry Holt
and Company
* Miller, Margaret. (1990). Who Uses This? New York: Greenwillow Books
* Murray, W. Illustrated by: Martin Aitchison. (1977). I Like To Write. Maine:
Ladybird Books
* Numeroff, Laura Joffe. Ill by: Joe Mathieu. (1993). Dogs Don’t Wear Sneakers.
NY: Simon & Schuster Books for young readers
* Numeroff, Laura Joffe. Ill by: Felicia Bond. (1991). If You Give a Moose a
Muffin. NY: A Laura Geringer Book
* Numeroff, Laura Joffe. Illustrated by: Felicia Bond. (1985). If You Give a
Mouse a Cookie? Toronto: Harper Collin Canada
* Numeroff, Laura Joffe. Ill by Lynn Munsinger. (1998). What Mommies Do Best
* Raschka, Chris. (1993). Yo Yes? New York: Orchard Books
* Resnick, Jane and Susan Postcanser. A Sunshine Storybook: Fun Time. New York:
Modern Publishing
* Ryder, Stephanie. Illustrated by: Stephanie Ryder (1992). Bath Time. England:
Brimax Books
* Staw, Jenny. (1992). The House That Jack Built. NY: Dial books for young
readers
* Smith, Mavis. (1997). Mind Your Manners, Ben Bunny. Toronto: Scholastic Inc.
* Walsh, Ellen. Illustrated by: Ellen Walsh. (1989). Mouse Paint. New York:
Harcourt Brace Children’s Book
* Werner, Jane. (1980). Alice in Wonderland Meets the White Rabbit Wisconsin:
Western Publishing Company, Inc.
* Wong, Janet S. Illustrated by: John Wallace. (2001). Grump. New York: Simon &
Schuster Children’s Publishing Division
* Yanase, Takashi. (1982). The World of Fairy Tales: Thumbelina. Tokyo:
Froebel-kan co., Ltd
* Zemach, Kaethe. (1998). The Character in the Book. US: Harper Collins
Publisher
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